By Ye Xie
March 20 (Bloomberg) -- The dollar traded near the lowest level against the euro since January on bets the Federal Reserve’s plan to buy Treasuries will push down yields on U.S. assets and prompt investors to seek returns elsewhere.
The U.S. currency dropped yesterday to the lowest versus Norway’s krone since October and depreciated against the pound as the Fed started flooding the market with greenbacks. Goldman Sachs Group Inc. raised the target on its bet against the dollar to $1.40 per euro yesterday after the greenback plunged on March 18 the most since the 16-nation currency’s 1999 debut.
“Risky assets rallied, and the dollar was hit,” said London-based Momtchil Pojarliev, head of currency at Hermes Pensions Management Ltd., which has about $70 billion in assets under management. “The market doesn’t like quantitative easing. I think the dollar will remain weak.”
The dollar traded at $1.3665 per euro at 6:13 a.m. in Tokyo, after declining 1.4 percent yesterday, when it touched $1.3738, the weakest level since Jan. 9. The U.S. currency was at 94.48 yen, after falling 1.8 percent yesterday and reaching 93.54, the lowest since Feb. 23. The euro traded at 129.08 yen, following a 0.4 percent drop. The dollar was at $1.4508 per pound after decreasing 1.6 percent.
Currencies of commodity producers such as the Norwegian krone led the rally against the dollar yesterday. The krone gained as much as 4 percent to 6.2866 per dollar, the strongest level since Oct. 15.
Crude oil, Norway’s biggest export, exceeded $50 a barrel for the first time in two months, while gold had its biggest gain since September.
Outlook for Inflation
“We may end up with higher inflation down the road, and people need to buy real productive assets, which the U.S. doesn’t have,” said New York-based David Tien of Fischer Francis Trees & Watts, who helps oversee funds that were worth an estimated $22 billion in December. “The biggest winner will be commodity currencies followed by the euro.”
The greenback may trade in “high $1.40 areas” versus the euro in the next three to six months, according to Tien. The U.S. currency lost 10 percent in the first half of December after the Fed first brought up the prospect of quantitative easing. In such a practice, a central bank uses injections of funds into the economy as its main policy tool.
Goldman Sachs stepped up its bet against the dollar, a trade it recommended on Feb. 19 when the U.S. currency was at $1.2570, according to a note sent to clients yesterday titled “Let the Printing Press Roll.”
Rate Spreads
“U.S. rate differentials are turning much less dollar- supportive,” wrote Francesco Garzarelli, chief interest-rate strategist at Goldman Sachs in London.
The yield on the 10-year Treasury note increased 0.06 percentage point to 2.60 percent yesterday after tumbling on March 18 by the most since January 1962. The rate was 0.46 percentage point lower than that of the comparable-maturity German bund. The gap widened from 0.18 percentage point three days ago.
The ICE’s Dollar Index slid for an eighth day yesterday, the longest stretch in a year, after the Federal Open Market Committee said on March 18 it would purchase up to $300 billion in Treasuries and an additional $750 billion of agency mortgage- backed securities.
The premium traders pay to buy call options on the euro versus the dollar over puts rose to a level indicating traders are the most bullish on the European currency in at least five years. A call option gives an investor the right to buy, while a put provides the right to sell.
Risk Reversal
The euro’s one-month 25-delta risk-reversal rate against the dollar reached 0.9675 percent yesterday, the highest since October 2003, when Bloomberg began compiling the data. The index had a negative reading as recently as March 12. A delta is the change in the value of an option for each dollar change in the market price of the underlying asset.
The dollar may reassert itself as the global economy continues to shrink, prompting investors to buy the world’s reserve currency for safety, according to Robert Blake, head of strategy for North America in Boston at State Street Global Markets LLC, which has $12 trillion in assets under custody.
“We are not convinced yet this is going to result in sustained weakness of the dollar,” said Blake. “Quantitative easing is not something that works automatically on the economy and won’t necessarily lead to bank lending. I am not convinced recovery is here. There will be ugly data to come.”
The Philadelphia Fed’s general economic index increased to minus 35 in March from minus 41.3 a month earlier, indicating manufacturing in the region contracted for a sixth month.
To contact the reporter on this story: Ye Xie in New York at yxie6@bloomberg.net
http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601101&sid=ayYE24Luo3bY&refer=japan
2009年3月19日星期四
Obama Administration Sides With Wal-Mart Workers
By Karen Gullo and Margaret Cronin Fisk
March 19 (Bloomberg) -- The Obama administration sided with women suing Wal-Mart Stores Inc. for discrimination, urging a federal appeals court to let the current and former workers sue as a group and proceed with the biggest sex-bias case in U.S. history.
The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, weighing in on the lawsuit for the first time since it was filed in 2001, rejected Wal-Mart’s argument that as many as 2 million workers shouldn’t be allowed to seek back pay and punitive damages as a group because that would violate the company’s right to defend itself against each worker’s claims before a jury.
That position would prevent the government from ever seeking punitive damages from companies with a pattern of discrimination and interfere with the EEOC’s ability to obtain redress for violations of Title VII, the federal law that prohibits discrimination, said Barbara Sloan, an EEOC attorney, in a filing with a federal appeals court in San Francisco.
“If Wal-Mart’s arguments were accepted, it could effectively preclude a claim for punitive damages in most if not all Title VII pattern-or-practice cases including those brought by the Commission,” Sloan wrote. “It would be ‘nonsensical’ to prevent victims of particularly egregious discrimination from proceeding collectively.”
Wal-Mart, the largest U.S. private employer, is accused of paying women less than men and giving them fewer promotions. The 2001 lawsuit was originally filed in San Francisco by six women seeking to represent other employees.
Appeals Court
A federal appeals court on March 24 will hear arguments in Wal-Mart’s appeal of a judge’s ruling that allowed workers to sue as a group and seek back pay and punitive damages. Wal-Mart, based in Bentonville, Arkansas, denied discriminating and said it should be allowed to defend the women’s claims on a case-by- case basis.
“We believe the EEOC’s positions are fundamentally incorrect and look forward to presenting our argument to the court of appeals on Tuesday,” Theodore Boutrous, Wal-Mart’s attorney, said today in an e-mail message.
The EEOC’s support of the Wal-Mart class action “can’t simply be attributed to the change in administrations,” said attorney Joseph Sellers, who represents the women. “These are the views of the people who were the holdovers at the commission,” he said.
“Wal-Mart’s position, if adopted by the court, would lead to the elimination of employment class actions larger than a couple of hundred people,” he said.
The EEOC didn’t address the merits of the case. The agency said it was filing the brief because “this court’s resolution of issues relating to punitive damages and backpay in class cases may directly affect the commission’s enforcement of Title VII” of the 1964 Civil Rights Act, “particularly its systemic litigation.”
The U.S. Chamber of Commerce earlier filed an amicus brief supporting Wal-Mart’s efforts to reverse the class-action decision. “If the district court’s decision stands, it will have a potentially destructive effect on the Chamber’s members, who will likely face billions of dollars in new class-action claims,” the organization’s lawyers argued in a March 6 filing.
The EEOC’s support of class certification “would be given considerable weight” by the appeals court considering the decision, law professor Carl Tobias of the University of Richmond said today. “That’s the agency’s area of expertise.”
The case is Dukes v. Wal-Mart Stores Inc., 04-16688, U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit (San Francisco).
To contact the reporters on this story: Karen Gullo in San Francisco kgullo@bloomberg.net; Margaret Cronin Fisk in Southfield, Michigan, at mcfisk@bloomberg.net.
March 19 (Bloomberg) -- The Obama administration sided with women suing Wal-Mart Stores Inc. for discrimination, urging a federal appeals court to let the current and former workers sue as a group and proceed with the biggest sex-bias case in U.S. history.
The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, weighing in on the lawsuit for the first time since it was filed in 2001, rejected Wal-Mart’s argument that as many as 2 million workers shouldn’t be allowed to seek back pay and punitive damages as a group because that would violate the company’s right to defend itself against each worker’s claims before a jury.
That position would prevent the government from ever seeking punitive damages from companies with a pattern of discrimination and interfere with the EEOC’s ability to obtain redress for violations of Title VII, the federal law that prohibits discrimination, said Barbara Sloan, an EEOC attorney, in a filing with a federal appeals court in San Francisco.
“If Wal-Mart’s arguments were accepted, it could effectively preclude a claim for punitive damages in most if not all Title VII pattern-or-practice cases including those brought by the Commission,” Sloan wrote. “It would be ‘nonsensical’ to prevent victims of particularly egregious discrimination from proceeding collectively.”
Wal-Mart, the largest U.S. private employer, is accused of paying women less than men and giving them fewer promotions. The 2001 lawsuit was originally filed in San Francisco by six women seeking to represent other employees.
Appeals Court
A federal appeals court on March 24 will hear arguments in Wal-Mart’s appeal of a judge’s ruling that allowed workers to sue as a group and seek back pay and punitive damages. Wal-Mart, based in Bentonville, Arkansas, denied discriminating and said it should be allowed to defend the women’s claims on a case-by- case basis.
“We believe the EEOC’s positions are fundamentally incorrect and look forward to presenting our argument to the court of appeals on Tuesday,” Theodore Boutrous, Wal-Mart’s attorney, said today in an e-mail message.
The EEOC’s support of the Wal-Mart class action “can’t simply be attributed to the change in administrations,” said attorney Joseph Sellers, who represents the women. “These are the views of the people who were the holdovers at the commission,” he said.
“Wal-Mart’s position, if adopted by the court, would lead to the elimination of employment class actions larger than a couple of hundred people,” he said.
The EEOC didn’t address the merits of the case. The agency said it was filing the brief because “this court’s resolution of issues relating to punitive damages and backpay in class cases may directly affect the commission’s enforcement of Title VII” of the 1964 Civil Rights Act, “particularly its systemic litigation.”
The U.S. Chamber of Commerce earlier filed an amicus brief supporting Wal-Mart’s efforts to reverse the class-action decision. “If the district court’s decision stands, it will have a potentially destructive effect on the Chamber’s members, who will likely face billions of dollars in new class-action claims,” the organization’s lawyers argued in a March 6 filing.
The EEOC’s support of class certification “would be given considerable weight” by the appeals court considering the decision, law professor Carl Tobias of the University of Richmond said today. “That’s the agency’s area of expertise.”
The case is Dukes v. Wal-Mart Stores Inc., 04-16688, U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit (San Francisco).
To contact the reporters on this story: Karen Gullo in San Francisco kgullo@bloomberg.net; Margaret Cronin Fisk in Southfield, Michigan, at mcfisk@bloomberg.net.
Fed plan may lower rates, but at what cost?
By Burton Frierson - Analysis
NEW YORK (Reuters) - Through its control of the printing press the Federal Reserve may be able to push down government bond yields as low as it wants, though it will eventually face a day of reckoning with inflation.
The Federal Reserve said on Wednesday it would buy up to $300 billion in longer-term Treasuries, effectively printing money in order to lower yields and bring down borrowing costs throughout the economy, particularly in the troubled mortgage sector.
Not all analysts agree the plan is a good idea or that it will cure what ails the heavily indebted economy, but many expect it to bring the benchmark 10-year note yield back down to the 50 year lows seen around 2.0 per cent seen last December.
"They can hold them down as low and as long as they want because they can print as much money as they want," said Marty Mitchell head of government bond trading at Stifel Nicolaus in Baltimore.
"Yields can stay low and probably are headed lower."
Inflation will ultimately become an issue, Mitchell said, but the more immediate concern was the prospect of a downward deflationary spiral in prices, wages and economic activity.
This means inflation is not on the agenda and will not be for at least a matter of months and possibly a couple of years.
"Inflation is tomorrow's end game," Mitchell added. "Right now they're fighting off a deflationary environment."
FOUR PERCENT MORTGAGE RATES ?
In the wake of the Fed's announcement on Wednesday, 10-year yields fell as far as 2.47 percent from near 3.0 percent for the biggest one day fall since the 1987 stockmarket crash, but on Thursday 10-year yields actually rose to 2.59 percent.
Mary Ann Hurley, vice president of fixed-income trading at D.A. Davidson & Co. in Seattle, also said the 2.0 percent level on 10-year yields would come into play, but was not sure how long the Fed could hold yields at that level.
"I think their desire is to get conventional mortgage rates down to four percent and I think they're going to keep buying Treasuries to achieve that level," Hurley said.
Interest rates on 30-year fixed-rate mortgages fell more than 0.40 percentage point to 4.79 percent on Thursday, according to the Zillow Mortgage Rate Monitor, compiled by real estate website Zillow.com.
The Fed has made clear it wants to support mortgage market, and pushing rates down may indeed help overly indebted home owners switch out of onerous loan terms and into cheaper ones.
Still, it remains to be seen whether credit easing will help an economy suffering from the effects of rampant over borrowing by consumers more broadly. Continued...The Fed may take comfort, though, from the fact that it is not alone, with the Bank of England and the Bank of Japan involved in similar debt-buying endeavors.
CROSSING THE RUBICON
And then, there's the nagging issue of inflation.
"While we're not concerned about inflation right now, boy we potentially have a huge problem down the road," said Hurley. "I don't think it's this year or next year's problem but maybe 2011."
"We've got a huge amount of stimulus and how is the Fed going to unwind all this? I can see a scenario where interest rates go up dramatically, which will hurt the economy. So, it's a mess."
It's not just interest rates that may facing greater volatility. The dollar too might be in for a wild ride if Wednesday's plunge is any guide.
Against a basket of currencies, the dollar sank 3.0 percent, its largest percentage drop since 1985 .DXY.
This result of the Fed plan may be the biggest concern.
Even though the central bank may have some initial success in depressing rates, analysts worry that monetary policy has passed a point of no return with the printing of money.
"We've crossed the Rubicon," said Howard Simons, strategist at Bianco Research in Chicago. "We have absolutely severed any connection between our dollar and reality. It's as fast as you can print it right now."
(Additional Reporting by Julie Haviv)
NEW YORK (Reuters) - Through its control of the printing press the Federal Reserve may be able to push down government bond yields as low as it wants, though it will eventually face a day of reckoning with inflation.
The Federal Reserve said on Wednesday it would buy up to $300 billion in longer-term Treasuries, effectively printing money in order to lower yields and bring down borrowing costs throughout the economy, particularly in the troubled mortgage sector.
Not all analysts agree the plan is a good idea or that it will cure what ails the heavily indebted economy, but many expect it to bring the benchmark 10-year note yield back down to the 50 year lows seen around 2.0 per cent seen last December.
"They can hold them down as low and as long as they want because they can print as much money as they want," said Marty Mitchell head of government bond trading at Stifel Nicolaus in Baltimore.
"Yields can stay low and probably are headed lower."
Inflation will ultimately become an issue, Mitchell said, but the more immediate concern was the prospect of a downward deflationary spiral in prices, wages and economic activity.
This means inflation is not on the agenda and will not be for at least a matter of months and possibly a couple of years.
"Inflation is tomorrow's end game," Mitchell added. "Right now they're fighting off a deflationary environment."
FOUR PERCENT MORTGAGE RATES ?
In the wake of the Fed's announcement on Wednesday, 10-year yields fell as far as 2.47 percent from near 3.0 percent for the biggest one day fall since the 1987 stockmarket crash, but on Thursday 10-year yields actually rose to 2.59 percent.
Mary Ann Hurley, vice president of fixed-income trading at D.A. Davidson & Co. in Seattle, also said the 2.0 percent level on 10-year yields would come into play, but was not sure how long the Fed could hold yields at that level.
"I think their desire is to get conventional mortgage rates down to four percent and I think they're going to keep buying Treasuries to achieve that level," Hurley said.
Interest rates on 30-year fixed-rate mortgages fell more than 0.40 percentage point to 4.79 percent on Thursday, according to the Zillow Mortgage Rate Monitor, compiled by real estate website Zillow.com.
The Fed has made clear it wants to support mortgage market, and pushing rates down may indeed help overly indebted home owners switch out of onerous loan terms and into cheaper ones.
Still, it remains to be seen whether credit easing will help an economy suffering from the effects of rampant over borrowing by consumers more broadly. Continued...The Fed may take comfort, though, from the fact that it is not alone, with the Bank of England and the Bank of Japan involved in similar debt-buying endeavors.
CROSSING THE RUBICON
And then, there's the nagging issue of inflation.
"While we're not concerned about inflation right now, boy we potentially have a huge problem down the road," said Hurley. "I don't think it's this year or next year's problem but maybe 2011."
"We've got a huge amount of stimulus and how is the Fed going to unwind all this? I can see a scenario where interest rates go up dramatically, which will hurt the economy. So, it's a mess."
It's not just interest rates that may facing greater volatility. The dollar too might be in for a wild ride if Wednesday's plunge is any guide.
Against a basket of currencies, the dollar sank 3.0 percent, its largest percentage drop since 1985 .DXY.
This result of the Fed plan may be the biggest concern.
Even though the central bank may have some initial success in depressing rates, analysts worry that monetary policy has passed a point of no return with the printing of money.
"We've crossed the Rubicon," said Howard Simons, strategist at Bianco Research in Chicago. "We have absolutely severed any connection between our dollar and reality. It's as fast as you can print it right now."
(Additional Reporting by Julie Haviv)
在国外美容--英语对话
Hairdresser: Good morning, madam.
Guest: Good morning. I would like a shampoo and set.
Hairdresser: Yes, madam. What style do you want?
Guest: I'd like to try a new hair-style. Could you show me some pictures of hair styles?
Hairdresser: Sure. We have various models: hair bobbed, hair sweptback, chaplet hair style, shoulder-length hair style, hair done in a bun. Please have a look at them, madam.
Guest: Thanks. Please give me the style in this picture here but make the wave longer. I would like hair spray, please.
Hairdresser: Yes, madam.
Guest: Oh, your hair dryer is too hot. Would you adjust it, please?
Hairdresser: Sorry, madam. I'll adjust it right away.
Hairdresser: Is that all right now?
Guest: Yes, thank.
Hairdresser: Please have a look.
Guest: Beautifully done. Please trim my eyebrows and darken them.
Hairdresser: All right, madam. And would you like a manicure?
Guest: Yes. Use a light nail varnish, please.
美容师：上午好，太太。
客人：上午好。我想洗头、做头发。
美容师：是，太太。做什么式样？
客人：我想换个新发型。你能不能给我看些发型式样的照片？
美容师：可以。我们有各种各样的发型，如剪短发、后掠式、盘花冠式、齐肩式，还有把头发挽成发髻。太太，您请看。
客人：谢谢。请你按这张照片上的发型烫，波浪烫长些。请喷些发胶。
美容师：好的，太太。
客人：哎呦，吹风太热了，请调整一下吧。
美容师：对不起，太太。我马上调整。
美容师：现在可以了吗？
客人：可以了，谢谢。
美容师：请您看一看。
客人：做得好极了。请把眉毛修一下，再画深一点。
美容师：好的，太太。您还要修一下指甲吗？
客人：要的。请用浅色指甲油。
Vocabulary 单词表
1. bob: 剪短（头发）
2. sweptback: 向后倾斜的
3. chaplet: 花冠
4. spray: 喷，洒
5. adjust: 调整
6. manicure: 修指甲
7. varnish: 清漆，油
Guest: Good morning. I would like a shampoo and set.
Hairdresser: Yes, madam. What style do you want?
Guest: I'd like to try a new hair-style. Could you show me some pictures of hair styles?
Hairdresser: Sure. We have various models: hair bobbed, hair sweptback, chaplet hair style, shoulder-length hair style, hair done in a bun. Please have a look at them, madam.
Guest: Thanks. Please give me the style in this picture here but make the wave longer. I would like hair spray, please.
Hairdresser: Yes, madam.
Guest: Oh, your hair dryer is too hot. Would you adjust it, please?
Hairdresser: Sorry, madam. I'll adjust it right away.
Hairdresser: Is that all right now?
Guest: Yes, thank.
Hairdresser: Please have a look.
Guest: Beautifully done. Please trim my eyebrows and darken them.
Hairdresser: All right, madam. And would you like a manicure?
Guest: Yes. Use a light nail varnish, please.
美容师：上午好，太太。
客人：上午好。我想洗头、做头发。
美容师：是，太太。做什么式样？
客人：我想换个新发型。你能不能给我看些发型式样的照片？
美容师：可以。我们有各种各样的发型，如剪短发、后掠式、盘花冠式、齐肩式，还有把头发挽成发髻。太太，您请看。
客人：谢谢。请你按这张照片上的发型烫，波浪烫长些。请喷些发胶。
美容师：好的，太太。
客人：哎呦，吹风太热了，请调整一下吧。
美容师：对不起，太太。我马上调整。
美容师：现在可以了吗？
客人：可以了，谢谢。
美容师：请您看一看。
客人：做得好极了。请把眉毛修一下，再画深一点。
美容师：好的，太太。您还要修一下指甲吗？
客人：要的。请用浅色指甲油。
Vocabulary 单词表
1. bob: 剪短（头发）
2. sweptback: 向后倾斜的
3. chaplet: 花冠
4. spray: 喷，洒
5. adjust: 调整
6. manicure: 修指甲
7. varnish: 清漆，油
2009年3月12日星期四
洗发水
洗发水的清洁剂 ，以清洁你的头发和你的头皮。 Most shampoos clean your hair very well.大多数洗发水清洁你的头发非常好。 Where they differ is how your hair feels afterward, depending partly on the strength of the surfactants.如果它们不同的是如何认为你的头发后，一定程度上取决于其强度的表面活性剂。 Stronger clarifying shampoos should not be used more than once or twice a week.更有力的澄清洗发水不应当被用来不止一次或每周两次。 Those designed for daily use contain mild surfactants and are less likely to irritate the scalp.这些专为日常使用含有温和表面活性剂和不太可能刺激头皮。
Ingredients of shampoos成分的洗发水
All shampoos are 80-90% water with 2-8% detergents and foaming agents and about 1% fragrance and preservatives.所有的洗发水是80-90 ％的水2-8 ％洗涤剂和发泡剂和1 ％左右的香水和防腐剂。 Shampoos often contain antistatic and detangling agents as well as thickeners, humectants, sequestering agents, colour and conditioners.洗发水通常包含抗静电和detangling代理人以及增稠剂， humectants ，碳剂，颜色和空调。
Effective detergents include sodium lauryl sulfate, laureth sulfate and sulfosuccinate.有效的洗涤剂包括十二烷基硫酸钠，硫酸和laureth磺酸钠。 They give the hair a squeaky clean feel.他们给头发一做得干干净净的感觉。
Clarifying shampoos contain heavy-duty surfactants.澄清洗发水含有重型表面活性剂。 Body building shampoos contain proteins that bond to hair and increase its volume.班子建设洗发水含有蛋白质，头发和债券，以增加其数量。
Moisturizing shampoos are the best choice for dry, flyaway hair.保湿洗发水是最好的选择，干燥，隔热的头发。 They can cut down on static, make split ends look better (by gluing them together with proteins), and pull moisture onto hair to keep it from getting too dry.他们可以减少静电，使开叉好看（由粘合在一起的蛋白质） ，并把水分到头发保持它太干燥。
Revitalizing or replenishing shampoos are made for color-treated, permed, and damaged hair and contain gentler surfactants.振兴或补充洗发水是彩色处理， permed ，和受损的毛发和含有温和表面活性剂。 They may include ingredients designed to retain colour or to help to repair split ends, but there's little evidence that they are effective.它们可能包括成分设计保留肤色或帮助修复开叉，但几乎没有证据表明，他们是有效的。
2-in-1 shampoos with conditioner save time but may leave your hair feeling too dry or sticky. 2合1洗发水与护发节省时间，但可留下您的头发的感觉太干或粘性。
Baby shampoos contain amphoterics and have less detergent and are not designed for cleaning adult hair, especially when alot of styling products have been used.婴儿洗发水含有较少amphoterics和洗涤剂，而不是专为成人头发的清洁，尤其是当大量的造型产品已被使用。 They may be appropriate for someone that has damaged hair and who finds standard shampoos too harsh.他们可能是适当的人说，已经损坏的头发，谁认定标准洗发水过于苛刻。
如何使用洗发水
Wet the scalp and hair using warm or cool water (hot water can be drying to the hair and scalp).湿头皮和头发用热烈或冷却水（热水可干燥的头发与头皮） 。 Apply a 5 to 10-cent amount of shampoo to palm and rub hands together to evenly distribute.适用5至10美分数额的洗发水，以棕榈油，用手擦出平均分配。 Apply the shampoo to the scalp.适用于洗发水的头皮上。 Massage gently with your fingertips for about 30 seconds and then rinse thoroughly.按摩与您的指尖轻轻地为大约30秒，然后彻底冲洗。
You only need to lather your hair once under normal conditions.你只需要你的头发一旦泡沫在正常情况下。 Lather is destroyed by sebum so an oily scalp may require a second shampoo.泡沫是破坏皮脂所以油性头皮可能需要第二次洗发水。 Excessive lather is wasteful: it doesn't clean hair any better.过多的泡沫是一种浪费：它不干净的头发更好。 Shampoo should be easy to rinse off, but conditioners, styling products and chemical processes may leave a residue.洗发水应易于冲洗，但是空调，造型产品和化学过程可能会留下残余物。
After rinsing, apply some conditioner in one hand and rub palms together to evenly distribute.经过清洗，适用于一些空调在一方面和摩擦双手合十，以均衡地分配。 Apply conditioner from the middle of the hair shaft down to ends.适用于空调，来自中东的头发骨干到结束。 Avoid the scalp unless scalp is dry.避免头皮除非头皮干燥。 Comb conditioner through hair to distribute product evenly.头发梳空调通过分发产品均匀。 Leave conditioner on hair for a few seconds to help smooth the cuticle.离开空调头发上几秒钟，以帮助顺利角质层。 Rinse thoroughly.彻底冲洗。
Conditioners are designed to counteract the effect of detergents, repair static electricity and split ends.空调旨在抵消影响的洗涤剂，修理静电开叉。 A silicone film smoothes cuticles and reduces friction and hair breakage, and maintains colour.硅胶膜平滑角质层，并减少摩擦和头发断裂，并保持颜色。 Conditioners often contain anionics for softness and manageability.空调通常包含anionics的柔软性和可管理性。
Medicated shampoos药用洗发水
Medicated shampoos may contain salicylic acid to loosen flakes of skin, and selenium sulfide , zinc pyrithione, ketoconazole or ciclopirox to reduce the numbers of Malassezia yeasts on the scalp.药用洗发水可能含有水杨酸放松片的皮肤， 硫化硒 ，锌pyrithione ， 酮康唑或环吡减少的数目马拉酵母菌的头皮上。 They are very helpful in dandruff and seborrhoeic dermatitis .它们是非常有益的头皮屑和seborrhoeic性皮炎 。 They may also help treat scalp psoriasis and atopic dermatitis , but often shampoos containg coal tar are more useful in these conditions.他们还可以帮助治疗头皮银屑病和特应性皮炎 ，但往往是洗发水含煤焦油更有益的这些条件。
Medicated shampoos need to be left on for longer than normal shampoos.药用洗发水需要留在超过正常的洗发水。 Ideally, make the hair wet 10 minutes before your shower/bath.理想的情况下，使头发湿前10分钟的淋浴/浴。 Apply medicated shamoo as above.适用于药shamoo如上。 and massage gently into the scalp.并轻轻按摩到头皮上。 Leave for 10 minutes and rinse off well.离开10分钟，冲洗以及关闭。
You may still use a conditioner afterwards.您仍可以使用空调之后。
Skin problems due to shampoos皮肤问题，由于洗发水
Shampoos can irritate and cause scalp problems.洗发水可以刺激并造成头皮问题。 These are rare with modern products made by reputable manufacturers if they have been designed for sensitive skin and are used appropriately.这是罕见的与现代制造的产品有信誉的生产商，如果他们已经设计用于敏感皮肤，并使用得当。 Overwashing may have the following effects: Overwashing可能有以下影响：
The pH of the skin surface may change: look for pH-balanced shampoos. pH值的皮肤表面可能会改变：寻找pH值平衡的洗发水。
The number and type of bacteria and yeasts on the skin surface may change, resulting in dandruff or seborrhoeic dermatitis .的数量和类型的细菌和酵母菌的皮肤表面可能会改变，从而导致头皮屑或seborrhoeic皮炎 。
The surface oil film ( sebum ) is removed, allowing greater water loss through the epidermis to the skin surface, from where it evaporates.表面油膜（ 皮脂 ）被删除，让更多的水土流失通过表皮的皮肤表面，从那里蒸发。
The de-fatted skin may become excessively dry.去脱脂皮肤可能会变得过于干燥。
The surface horny cells may be loosened, disturbing barrier function and allowing more water loss.表面角质细胞可能放松，令人不安的屏障功能，并允许更多的水损失。 The skin becomes more permeable to chemicals such as hair dye and perming solution.皮肤变得更为容易渗透到化学品，如染发和烫发解决方案。
Dry skin is more prone to infection with Staphylococcus aureus , resulting in impetigo . 干燥的皮肤更容易受到感染的金黄色葡萄球菌 ，导致脓疱疮 。
Irritant contact dermatitis (red, dry, chafed skin) may develop. 刺激性接触性皮炎 （红色，干燥，皮肤恼火）可能发展。 This may be provoked by the dry skin itself, or by a particular surfactant in the shampoo.这可能是所挑起皮肤干燥本身，或由某一特定表面活性剂在洗发水。 Sodium lauryl sulphate is more irritating than sodium laureth sulphate for example.十二烷基硫酸钠是令人厌烦的其中钠laureth硫酸的例子。
Stinging, especially if dermatitis is already present.刺痛，特别是如果性皮炎已经存在。
Contact urticaria (immediate redness, itching and swelling) may arise due to a fragrance or preservative.接触性荨麻疹（立即发红，瘙痒和肿胀）可能产生的原因是香味或防腐剂。
Allergic contact dermatitis (a delayed but persistent reaction) may develop to a component of the shampoo. 过敏性接触性皮炎 （延迟，但持续的反应）可能发展到一个组成部分的洗发水。 Because they are rinsed off, true contact allergy to shampoo is rare.因为他们是冲洗后，真正接触过敏的洗发水是罕见的。 However it may result from:然而，它可能是由于：
Botanicals such as chamomile , lavender and rose oil植物，如甘菊 ，薰衣草和玫瑰油
Preservatives, such as Kathon CG or quaternium-15防腐剂，如凯松协商小组或quaternium - 15
Fragrances 香水
Protein contact dermatitis, a rare mixture of contact urticaria and allergic dermatitis, due to a protein component such as peanut or oatmeal.蛋白质接触性皮炎，这是一种罕见的混合接触性荨麻疹和过敏性皮炎，由于蛋白质的组成部分，如花生或燕麦片。
Ingredients of shampoos成分的洗发水
All shampoos are 80-90% water with 2-8% detergents and foaming agents and about 1% fragrance and preservatives.所有的洗发水是80-90 ％的水2-8 ％洗涤剂和发泡剂和1 ％左右的香水和防腐剂。 Shampoos often contain antistatic and detangling agents as well as thickeners, humectants, sequestering agents, colour and conditioners.洗发水通常包含抗静电和detangling代理人以及增稠剂， humectants ，碳剂，颜色和空调。
Effective detergents include sodium lauryl sulfate, laureth sulfate and sulfosuccinate.有效的洗涤剂包括十二烷基硫酸钠，硫酸和laureth磺酸钠。 They give the hair a squeaky clean feel.他们给头发一做得干干净净的感觉。
Clarifying shampoos contain heavy-duty surfactants.澄清洗发水含有重型表面活性剂。 Body building shampoos contain proteins that bond to hair and increase its volume.班子建设洗发水含有蛋白质，头发和债券，以增加其数量。
Moisturizing shampoos are the best choice for dry, flyaway hair.保湿洗发水是最好的选择，干燥，隔热的头发。 They can cut down on static, make split ends look better (by gluing them together with proteins), and pull moisture onto hair to keep it from getting too dry.他们可以减少静电，使开叉好看（由粘合在一起的蛋白质） ，并把水分到头发保持它太干燥。
Revitalizing or replenishing shampoos are made for color-treated, permed, and damaged hair and contain gentler surfactants.振兴或补充洗发水是彩色处理， permed ，和受损的毛发和含有温和表面活性剂。 They may include ingredients designed to retain colour or to help to repair split ends, but there's little evidence that they are effective.它们可能包括成分设计保留肤色或帮助修复开叉，但几乎没有证据表明，他们是有效的。
2-in-1 shampoos with conditioner save time but may leave your hair feeling too dry or sticky. 2合1洗发水与护发节省时间，但可留下您的头发的感觉太干或粘性。
Baby shampoos contain amphoterics and have less detergent and are not designed for cleaning adult hair, especially when alot of styling products have been used.婴儿洗发水含有较少amphoterics和洗涤剂，而不是专为成人头发的清洁，尤其是当大量的造型产品已被使用。 They may be appropriate for someone that has damaged hair and who finds standard shampoos too harsh.他们可能是适当的人说，已经损坏的头发，谁认定标准洗发水过于苛刻。
如何使用洗发水
Wet the scalp and hair using warm or cool water (hot water can be drying to the hair and scalp).湿头皮和头发用热烈或冷却水（热水可干燥的头发与头皮） 。 Apply a 5 to 10-cent amount of shampoo to palm and rub hands together to evenly distribute.适用5至10美分数额的洗发水，以棕榈油，用手擦出平均分配。 Apply the shampoo to the scalp.适用于洗发水的头皮上。 Massage gently with your fingertips for about 30 seconds and then rinse thoroughly.按摩与您的指尖轻轻地为大约30秒，然后彻底冲洗。
You only need to lather your hair once under normal conditions.你只需要你的头发一旦泡沫在正常情况下。 Lather is destroyed by sebum so an oily scalp may require a second shampoo.泡沫是破坏皮脂所以油性头皮可能需要第二次洗发水。 Excessive lather is wasteful: it doesn't clean hair any better.过多的泡沫是一种浪费：它不干净的头发更好。 Shampoo should be easy to rinse off, but conditioners, styling products and chemical processes may leave a residue.洗发水应易于冲洗，但是空调，造型产品和化学过程可能会留下残余物。
After rinsing, apply some conditioner in one hand and rub palms together to evenly distribute.经过清洗，适用于一些空调在一方面和摩擦双手合十，以均衡地分配。 Apply conditioner from the middle of the hair shaft down to ends.适用于空调，来自中东的头发骨干到结束。 Avoid the scalp unless scalp is dry.避免头皮除非头皮干燥。 Comb conditioner through hair to distribute product evenly.头发梳空调通过分发产品均匀。 Leave conditioner on hair for a few seconds to help smooth the cuticle.离开空调头发上几秒钟，以帮助顺利角质层。 Rinse thoroughly.彻底冲洗。
Conditioners are designed to counteract the effect of detergents, repair static electricity and split ends.空调旨在抵消影响的洗涤剂，修理静电开叉。 A silicone film smoothes cuticles and reduces friction and hair breakage, and maintains colour.硅胶膜平滑角质层，并减少摩擦和头发断裂，并保持颜色。 Conditioners often contain anionics for softness and manageability.空调通常包含anionics的柔软性和可管理性。
Medicated shampoos药用洗发水
Medicated shampoos may contain salicylic acid to loosen flakes of skin, and selenium sulfide , zinc pyrithione, ketoconazole or ciclopirox to reduce the numbers of Malassezia yeasts on the scalp.药用洗发水可能含有水杨酸放松片的皮肤， 硫化硒 ，锌pyrithione ， 酮康唑或环吡减少的数目马拉酵母菌的头皮上。 They are very helpful in dandruff and seborrhoeic dermatitis .它们是非常有益的头皮屑和seborrhoeic性皮炎 。 They may also help treat scalp psoriasis and atopic dermatitis , but often shampoos containg coal tar are more useful in these conditions.他们还可以帮助治疗头皮银屑病和特应性皮炎 ，但往往是洗发水含煤焦油更有益的这些条件。
Medicated shampoos need to be left on for longer than normal shampoos.药用洗发水需要留在超过正常的洗发水。 Ideally, make the hair wet 10 minutes before your shower/bath.理想的情况下，使头发湿前10分钟的淋浴/浴。 Apply medicated shamoo as above.适用于药shamoo如上。 and massage gently into the scalp.并轻轻按摩到头皮上。 Leave for 10 minutes and rinse off well.离开10分钟，冲洗以及关闭。
You may still use a conditioner afterwards.您仍可以使用空调之后。
Skin problems due to shampoos皮肤问题，由于洗发水
Shampoos can irritate and cause scalp problems.洗发水可以刺激并造成头皮问题。 These are rare with modern products made by reputable manufacturers if they have been designed for sensitive skin and are used appropriately.这是罕见的与现代制造的产品有信誉的生产商，如果他们已经设计用于敏感皮肤，并使用得当。 Overwashing may have the following effects: Overwashing可能有以下影响：
The pH of the skin surface may change: look for pH-balanced shampoos. pH值的皮肤表面可能会改变：寻找pH值平衡的洗发水。
The number and type of bacteria and yeasts on the skin surface may change, resulting in dandruff or seborrhoeic dermatitis .的数量和类型的细菌和酵母菌的皮肤表面可能会改变，从而导致头皮屑或seborrhoeic皮炎 。
The surface oil film ( sebum ) is removed, allowing greater water loss through the epidermis to the skin surface, from where it evaporates.表面油膜（ 皮脂 ）被删除，让更多的水土流失通过表皮的皮肤表面，从那里蒸发。
The de-fatted skin may become excessively dry.去脱脂皮肤可能会变得过于干燥。
The surface horny cells may be loosened, disturbing barrier function and allowing more water loss.表面角质细胞可能放松，令人不安的屏障功能，并允许更多的水损失。 The skin becomes more permeable to chemicals such as hair dye and perming solution.皮肤变得更为容易渗透到化学品，如染发和烫发解决方案。
Dry skin is more prone to infection with Staphylococcus aureus , resulting in impetigo . 干燥的皮肤更容易受到感染的金黄色葡萄球菌 ，导致脓疱疮 。
Irritant contact dermatitis (red, dry, chafed skin) may develop. 刺激性接触性皮炎 （红色，干燥，皮肤恼火）可能发展。 This may be provoked by the dry skin itself, or by a particular surfactant in the shampoo.这可能是所挑起皮肤干燥本身，或由某一特定表面活性剂在洗发水。 Sodium lauryl sulphate is more irritating than sodium laureth sulphate for example.十二烷基硫酸钠是令人厌烦的其中钠laureth硫酸的例子。
Stinging, especially if dermatitis is already present.刺痛，特别是如果性皮炎已经存在。
Contact urticaria (immediate redness, itching and swelling) may arise due to a fragrance or preservative.接触性荨麻疹（立即发红，瘙痒和肿胀）可能产生的原因是香味或防腐剂。
Allergic contact dermatitis (a delayed but persistent reaction) may develop to a component of the shampoo. 过敏性接触性皮炎 （延迟，但持续的反应）可能发展到一个组成部分的洗发水。 Because they are rinsed off, true contact allergy to shampoo is rare.因为他们是冲洗后，真正接触过敏的洗发水是罕见的。 However it may result from:然而，它可能是由于：
Botanicals such as chamomile , lavender and rose oil植物，如甘菊 ，薰衣草和玫瑰油
Preservatives, such as Kathon CG or quaternium-15防腐剂，如凯松协商小组或quaternium - 15
Fragrances 香水
Protein contact dermatitis, a rare mixture of contact urticaria and allergic dermatitis, due to a protein component such as peanut or oatmeal.蛋白质接触性皮炎，这是一种罕见的混合接触性荨麻疹和过敏性皮炎，由于蛋白质的组成部分，如花生或燕麦片。
Types of cosmetology
Hair stylist
A hair stylist specializes in the styling of hair, including cutting, chemical services (relaxers, perms, and color as well as restorative treatments)
[edit] Shampoo technician
A shampoo technician shampoos and conditions a client's hair in preparation for the hair stylist. A shampoo tech may assist with rinsing permanent waves, and shampooing color and chemical relaxers out of the hair after processing. Shampoo techs are normally only employed by corporate or concept salons and large-volume beauty salons that are operated simultaneously. In some states, a shampoo tech must have a cosmetology permit. This is usually a temporary position, held by a person who is newly licensed with little or no experience.
[edit] Manicurist
A manicure is a cosmetic treatment for the fingernails and/or hands. The word "manicure" derives from Latin: manus for hand, cura for "care". When performed on the feet, such a treatment is called a pedicure.
Many manicures start by soaking the hands or feet in a softening substance and the application of lotion. A common type of manicure involves shaping the nails and application of nail polish. A manicure may also include the application of artificial nail tips, acrylics or artificial nail gels. Some manicures can include the painting of pictures or designs on the nails or applying small decals or imitation jewels.
In many areas, manicurists are licensed and follow regulation. Since skin is manipulated and is sometimes trimmed, there is a certain risk of spreading infection when tools are used across many people and therefore sanitation is a serious issue.
[edit] Esthetician
Facials may include the use of a facial mask.
An esthetician specializes in the study of skin care, including facials, microdermabrasion, body wraps (relaxing treatments which involve hot linens, plastic sheets, and blankets), salt glows (an exfoliation treatment), waxing as a form of hair removal, cosmetic make-up services and other services with advanced training. Estheticians may work independently in a spa or salon or may assist a doctor in his or her practice. Working with a doctor an esthetician may perform more advanced services that require a doctor's supervision, such as deep chemical peels. In addition to performing beauty services, an esthetician must be skilled in recommending skin and body care products and retailing them to their clients. Many state board cosmetology schools do not offer training in retailing, but post graduate colleges will offer training in retailing skills.
An esthetician can be licensed solely for that skill. An esthetician is not necessarily licensed in cosmetology, but is typically well versed in knowledge of skin care.
[edit] Beauty therapist
Specializes in all treatments that include, hair removal, massage, body wraps, skin care, eye lash and brow tinting, make up along with machine treatments such as non surgical facelifts and faradic muscle tone. She / he may under go special training to provide specialist treatments such as laser hair removal and electrolysis.
[edit] Nail technician
A nail technician specializes in the art form and care of nails. This includes manicures, pedicures, acrylic nails, gel nails, nail wraps, fake nails, etc. They are also knowledgeable in nail irregularities and diseases, and may be able to identify such problems. They do not treat diseases, and would typically refer a client to a physician.
[edit] Electrologist
An electrologist offers services with the use of an electrolysis machine. As opposed to the hair removal via waxing offered by an esthetician, hair removal via electrolysis is permanent. It has recently been argued that barbers are also cosmetologists who extend the hair stylist speciality with services especially for men, such as shaving.
[edit] Becoming a cosmetologist
Electric face mask, circa 1939
When choosing a school, try to find one flexible of your time. And if you want to know course lengths, don't immediately jump into the school. Meet with some students that go to school there and see if they like it. General cosmetology courses in the United States focus primarily on hairstyling, but also train their students as general beauticians versed in manicures, facials, etc. In a state-licensed beauty school, a certificate course in general cosmetology typically takes approximately one year to complete. Specialized, non-hairstyling courses such as manicure, facials, or makeup art are usually of shorter duration, lasting anywhere from two weeks to six months, although the most prestigious and exclusive beauty schools may offer much longer courses.
In the United States, all states require barbers, cosmetologists, and most other personal appearance workers (with the exception of shampooers) to be licensed; however, qualifications for a license vary by state. Generally, a person must have graduated from a state-licensed barber or cosmetology school and be at least 16 years old. A few states require applicants to pass a physical examination. Some states require graduation from high school, while others require as little as an eighth-grade education. In a few states, the completion of an apprenticeship can substitute for graduation from a school, but very few barbers or cosmetologists learn their skills this way. Applicants for a license usually are required to pass a written test and demonstrate an ability to perform basic barbering or cosmetology services.[2]
In most states, there is a legal distinction between barbers and cosmetologists, with different licensing requirements. These distinctions and requirements vary from state to state. In most states, cosmetology sanitation practices and ethical practices are governed by the state's health department and a Board of Cosmetology. These entities ensure public safety by regulating sanitation products and practices and licensing requirements. Consumer complaints are usually directed to these offices and investigated from there.
Persons interested in practicing cosmetology can graduate from a general cosmetology course and then obtain a license in any of the cosmetology sub-disciplines, or they can choose to study only to become a manicurist or cosmetician. Students may choose a private beauty school or one of the many vocational schools which offer cosmetology courses to high school students. In addition, there are national organizations that provide educational and professional information.
[edit] Income
Most cosmetologists are paid in one of three ways:
Commission: A percentage of the money made from the provision of services is given back to the cosmetologist as pay. Many paid this way are considered self-employed, and are responsible for taxes. The salon will provide overhead expenses such as products, lights, water, etc. Usually a commission is also given on retail products sold.
Booth rental: The cosmetologist rents a space in the salon, for a monthly fee. This type of pay is defined as self-employment and the cosmetologist is responsible for all products used (perms, color etc.) as well as taxes.
Hourly wage: Many corporate and small chains are going in this direction since it promotes a more controlled product by ensuring that employees are responsible for following company standards and policies.
Tips are another source of income. Skilled cosmetologists can often make a considerable portion of their income from tips from customers.
A hair stylist specializes in the styling of hair, including cutting, chemical services (relaxers, perms, and color as well as restorative treatments)
[edit] Shampoo technician
A shampoo technician shampoos and conditions a client's hair in preparation for the hair stylist. A shampoo tech may assist with rinsing permanent waves, and shampooing color and chemical relaxers out of the hair after processing. Shampoo techs are normally only employed by corporate or concept salons and large-volume beauty salons that are operated simultaneously. In some states, a shampoo tech must have a cosmetology permit. This is usually a temporary position, held by a person who is newly licensed with little or no experience.
[edit] Manicurist
A manicure is a cosmetic treatment for the fingernails and/or hands. The word "manicure" derives from Latin: manus for hand, cura for "care". When performed on the feet, such a treatment is called a pedicure.
Many manicures start by soaking the hands or feet in a softening substance and the application of lotion. A common type of manicure involves shaping the nails and application of nail polish. A manicure may also include the application of artificial nail tips, acrylics or artificial nail gels. Some manicures can include the painting of pictures or designs on the nails or applying small decals or imitation jewels.
In many areas, manicurists are licensed and follow regulation. Since skin is manipulated and is sometimes trimmed, there is a certain risk of spreading infection when tools are used across many people and therefore sanitation is a serious issue.
[edit] Esthetician
Facials may include the use of a facial mask.
An esthetician specializes in the study of skin care, including facials, microdermabrasion, body wraps (relaxing treatments which involve hot linens, plastic sheets, and blankets), salt glows (an exfoliation treatment), waxing as a form of hair removal, cosmetic make-up services and other services with advanced training. Estheticians may work independently in a spa or salon or may assist a doctor in his or her practice. Working with a doctor an esthetician may perform more advanced services that require a doctor's supervision, such as deep chemical peels. In addition to performing beauty services, an esthetician must be skilled in recommending skin and body care products and retailing them to their clients. Many state board cosmetology schools do not offer training in retailing, but post graduate colleges will offer training in retailing skills.
An esthetician can be licensed solely for that skill. An esthetician is not necessarily licensed in cosmetology, but is typically well versed in knowledge of skin care.
[edit] Beauty therapist
Specializes in all treatments that include, hair removal, massage, body wraps, skin care, eye lash and brow tinting, make up along with machine treatments such as non surgical facelifts and faradic muscle tone. She / he may under go special training to provide specialist treatments such as laser hair removal and electrolysis.
[edit] Nail technician
A nail technician specializes in the art form and care of nails. This includes manicures, pedicures, acrylic nails, gel nails, nail wraps, fake nails, etc. They are also knowledgeable in nail irregularities and diseases, and may be able to identify such problems. They do not treat diseases, and would typically refer a client to a physician.
[edit] Electrologist
An electrologist offers services with the use of an electrolysis machine. As opposed to the hair removal via waxing offered by an esthetician, hair removal via electrolysis is permanent. It has recently been argued that barbers are also cosmetologists who extend the hair stylist speciality with services especially for men, such as shaving.
[edit] Becoming a cosmetologist
Electric face mask, circa 1939
When choosing a school, try to find one flexible of your time. And if you want to know course lengths, don't immediately jump into the school. Meet with some students that go to school there and see if they like it. General cosmetology courses in the United States focus primarily on hairstyling, but also train their students as general beauticians versed in manicures, facials, etc. In a state-licensed beauty school, a certificate course in general cosmetology typically takes approximately one year to complete. Specialized, non-hairstyling courses such as manicure, facials, or makeup art are usually of shorter duration, lasting anywhere from two weeks to six months, although the most prestigious and exclusive beauty schools may offer much longer courses.
In the United States, all states require barbers, cosmetologists, and most other personal appearance workers (with the exception of shampooers) to be licensed; however, qualifications for a license vary by state. Generally, a person must have graduated from a state-licensed barber or cosmetology school and be at least 16 years old. A few states require applicants to pass a physical examination. Some states require graduation from high school, while others require as little as an eighth-grade education. In a few states, the completion of an apprenticeship can substitute for graduation from a school, but very few barbers or cosmetologists learn their skills this way. Applicants for a license usually are required to pass a written test and demonstrate an ability to perform basic barbering or cosmetology services.[2]
In most states, there is a legal distinction between barbers and cosmetologists, with different licensing requirements. These distinctions and requirements vary from state to state. In most states, cosmetology sanitation practices and ethical practices are governed by the state's health department and a Board of Cosmetology. These entities ensure public safety by regulating sanitation products and practices and licensing requirements. Consumer complaints are usually directed to these offices and investigated from there.
Persons interested in practicing cosmetology can graduate from a general cosmetology course and then obtain a license in any of the cosmetology sub-disciplines, or they can choose to study only to become a manicurist or cosmetician. Students may choose a private beauty school or one of the many vocational schools which offer cosmetology courses to high school students. In addition, there are national organizations that provide educational and professional information.
[edit] Income
Most cosmetologists are paid in one of three ways:
Commission: A percentage of the money made from the provision of services is given back to the cosmetologist as pay. Many paid this way are considered self-employed, and are responsible for taxes. The salon will provide overhead expenses such as products, lights, water, etc. Usually a commission is also given on retail products sold.
Booth rental: The cosmetologist rents a space in the salon, for a monthly fee. This type of pay is defined as self-employment and the cosmetologist is responsible for all products used (perms, color etc.) as well as taxes.
Hourly wage: Many corporate and small chains are going in this direction since it promotes a more controlled product by ensuring that employees are responsible for following company standards and policies.
Tips are another source of income. Skilled cosmetologists can often make a considerable portion of their income from tips from customers.
2009年3月6日星期五
Why Open Source?开源何故？
All software is written with source code. With open source software, the code is protected by a special license that ensures everyone has access to that code. That means no one company can fully own it. Freedom means choice. Choice means power.
一切软件用源代码编写。借助于开源软件，这种代码就得到一种专门许可证的保护，确保人人都能使用这些代码。这意味着没有一家公司能够完全拥有代码。自由就是选择。选择就是力量。
That's why we believe open source is inevitable. It returns control to the customer. You can see the code, change it, learn from it. Bugs are more quickly found and fixed. And when customers don't like how one vendor is serving them, they can choose another without overhauling their infrastructure. No more technology lock-in. No more monopolies.
那就是为什么我们认为开源是必然的。它把控制归还给客户。您好可以访问代码、改变代码、从中学习。程序错误或缺陷更早发现并修复。当客户不喜欢某家供应商提供服务的方式时，他们可以选择又一家而无需大修基础设施。技术不再套牢。生意不再垄断。
And we believe open source simply creates better software. It multiplies one company's development capacity many times over. Everyone collaborates, the best software wins. Not just within one company, but among an Internet-connected, worldwide community. It's no coincidence that the rise of open source closely followed the rise of the Internet. The perfect breeding ground for collaboration, the Internet moves ideas and code around the world in an instant.
我们相信，开源实在创造了更好的软件。它使一家公司的开发能力翻了几番。人人合作，最佳软件获胜。不仅在一家公司内部，而且为互联网连接的全球社区所分享。这并非巧合，开源的兴起继之互联网兴起而来。互联网是完美的合作滋生地，它把各式各样的想法和代码瞬间传遍世界各地。
As a result, the open source model often builds higher quality, more secure, more easily integrated software. And it does it at a vastly accelerated pace and often at a lower cost.
因此，开源模式常常创建更高质量、更安全、更易于集成的软件。而且开发速度大大加快、成本往往较低。
The open source model is built on the premise that companies like Red Hat must consistently serve customers through extraordinary value, performance, and ease of integration and management. Or they can choose another vendor.
建立开源模型的前提是，诸如Red Hat等公司必须始终如一地通过非凡的价值、性能和易于集成与管理服务于客户。否则，客户可以选择另一家供应商。
In the proprietary model, development occurs within one company. Programmers write code, hide it behind binaries, charge customers to use the software--then charge them more to fix it when it breaks. No one ever has to know how bad the software really is.
按照专有模式，开发是在一家公司内部进行的。程序员编写源代码、用二进制文件隐藏源代码、向软件用户收费——然后在软件崩溃时再收费修复。从来没有人知道软件实际上是怎么坏的。
The problem worsens when you become tied to a company's architecture, protocols, and file formats. Bruce Perens calls this the addiction model of software procurement. Any model that puts customers at such a fundamental disadvantage is conceptually broken.
当您被一家公司的架构、协议和文件格式所束缚的时候，问题就更糟。布鲁斯·佩伦斯把这个说成是软件采购成瘾模型。从概念上说，必须打破把客户置于这样一个根本不利的地位的任何模式。
Open source is not nameless, faceless, and it's not charity. Nor is it solely a community effort. What you see today is a technology revolution driven ever forward by market demand.
开源不是默默无闻、身份不明，也不是慈善事业。开源也不是一个社区单枪匹马的努力。今天看到的是由市场需求不断向前推动的一场技术革命。
The concept behind open source is not new. For centuries, universities and research communities have shared their work. Monks copied books by hand. Scientists publish new discoveries in journals. Mathematical formulas are distributed, improved, redistributed.
开源背后的概念并不新。几个世纪以来，大学和研究团体曾经分享他们的工作。僧侣手抄书籍。科学家在杂志上发表新发现。数学公式散布、改进、再散布。
Imagine if all of this past knowledge was kept hidden or its use was restricted to only those who are willing to pay for it. Yet this is the mentality behind the proprietary software model. In the same way shared knowledge propels the whole of society forward, open technology development can drive innovation for an entire industry.
想像一下，如果所有这些知识过去一直隐藏起来，或者只限于那些愿意付钱的人才可使用。然而，这就是专有软件模式背后人们的心态。同样地，分享知识将推动整个社会的进步，开放的技术发展才能促使整个行业的创新。
一切软件用源代码编写。借助于开源软件，这种代码就得到一种专门许可证的保护，确保人人都能使用这些代码。这意味着没有一家公司能够完全拥有代码。自由就是选择。选择就是力量。
That's why we believe open source is inevitable. It returns control to the customer. You can see the code, change it, learn from it. Bugs are more quickly found and fixed. And when customers don't like how one vendor is serving them, they can choose another without overhauling their infrastructure. No more technology lock-in. No more monopolies.
那就是为什么我们认为开源是必然的。它把控制归还给客户。您好可以访问代码、改变代码、从中学习。程序错误或缺陷更早发现并修复。当客户不喜欢某家供应商提供服务的方式时，他们可以选择又一家而无需大修基础设施。技术不再套牢。生意不再垄断。
And we believe open source simply creates better software. It multiplies one company's development capacity many times over. Everyone collaborates, the best software wins. Not just within one company, but among an Internet-connected, worldwide community. It's no coincidence that the rise of open source closely followed the rise of the Internet. The perfect breeding ground for collaboration, the Internet moves ideas and code around the world in an instant.
我们相信，开源实在创造了更好的软件。它使一家公司的开发能力翻了几番。人人合作，最佳软件获胜。不仅在一家公司内部，而且为互联网连接的全球社区所分享。这并非巧合，开源的兴起继之互联网兴起而来。互联网是完美的合作滋生地，它把各式各样的想法和代码瞬间传遍世界各地。
As a result, the open source model often builds higher quality, more secure, more easily integrated software. And it does it at a vastly accelerated pace and often at a lower cost.
因此，开源模式常常创建更高质量、更安全、更易于集成的软件。而且开发速度大大加快、成本往往较低。
The open source model is built on the premise that companies like Red Hat must consistently serve customers through extraordinary value, performance, and ease of integration and management. Or they can choose another vendor.
建立开源模型的前提是，诸如Red Hat等公司必须始终如一地通过非凡的价值、性能和易于集成与管理服务于客户。否则，客户可以选择另一家供应商。
In the proprietary model, development occurs within one company. Programmers write code, hide it behind binaries, charge customers to use the software--then charge them more to fix it when it breaks. No one ever has to know how bad the software really is.
按照专有模式，开发是在一家公司内部进行的。程序员编写源代码、用二进制文件隐藏源代码、向软件用户收费——然后在软件崩溃时再收费修复。从来没有人知道软件实际上是怎么坏的。
The problem worsens when you become tied to a company's architecture, protocols, and file formats. Bruce Perens calls this the addiction model of software procurement. Any model that puts customers at such a fundamental disadvantage is conceptually broken.
当您被一家公司的架构、协议和文件格式所束缚的时候，问题就更糟。布鲁斯·佩伦斯把这个说成是软件采购成瘾模型。从概念上说，必须打破把客户置于这样一个根本不利的地位的任何模式。
Open source is not nameless, faceless, and it's not charity. Nor is it solely a community effort. What you see today is a technology revolution driven ever forward by market demand.
开源不是默默无闻、身份不明，也不是慈善事业。开源也不是一个社区单枪匹马的努力。今天看到的是由市场需求不断向前推动的一场技术革命。
The concept behind open source is not new. For centuries, universities and research communities have shared their work. Monks copied books by hand. Scientists publish new discoveries in journals. Mathematical formulas are distributed, improved, redistributed.
开源背后的概念并不新。几个世纪以来，大学和研究团体曾经分享他们的工作。僧侣手抄书籍。科学家在杂志上发表新发现。数学公式散布、改进、再散布。
Imagine if all of this past knowledge was kept hidden or its use was restricted to only those who are willing to pay for it. Yet this is the mentality behind the proprietary software model. In the same way shared knowledge propels the whole of society forward, open technology development can drive innovation for an entire industry.
想像一下，如果所有这些知识过去一直隐藏起来，或者只限于那些愿意付钱的人才可使用。然而，这就是专有软件模式背后人们的心态。同样地，分享知识将推动整个社会的进步，开放的技术发展才能促使整个行业的创新。
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